India was a site of paleolithic communities at least two hundred thousand years ago. By 7000 B.C.E. agriculture had become prominent in the Indus River Valley. After that, agriculture spread rapidly. Around 3000 B.C.E. Dravidian peoples had established neolithic communities throughout much of India. The settlers grew wheat, barley, and cotton. Early cities in India stood at the center of a political, social, and cultural order on the foundation of an agricultural economy.
Harappan Society
The Harappan Society was named after Harappa, one of its two chief cities. Both cities, the second being Mohenjo-daro, developed in the Indus River valley, so that the waters could be used for irrigation systems. The Harappan society however spanned more land than either the Mesopotamian or Egypt empires. Archaeologists have found it impossible to follow the development of Harappan society because many of the physical remains lay under the deposited silt from the Indus and a recently risen water table. They also face the problem of no deciphered written records. Because of this, Harappan life is unknown until people can unveil the pictographic script. The understanding of Harappan society depends on the study of material that archaeologists have uncovered since the 1920s.
Foundations of Harappan Society
The Indus River gets its water from rain and melting snow in the mountains of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. As the waters flow down, they pick up huge quantities of silt and carry it across long distances. It then deposits the rich soil as it weaves through the lowlands and slows its force. Today, many dams tame the Indus River, but for a long time the waters spread annually over a large floodplain causing a lot of damage. Many times the Indus has left its channel and made a new course to the sea. However, the Indus river made agricultural society possible in northern India. People of the valley grew wheat and barley complimenting it with herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. People also grew cotton before 5000 B.C.E. and dyed cloth around 2000 B.C.E. Agricultural surpluses in India led to population growth and the creating of cities and specialized labor. Between 3000 and 2500 B.C.E., Dravidian people built an intricate society that dominated the valley until its decline after 1900 B.C.E. There is no evidence of a political system or royal authority. Harappan society covered much of modern day Pakistan and northern India. The land mass was quite larger, about 502,000 square feet, than both Mesopotamian and Egyptian society. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were prominent because of their large size. Both cities had city walls, a fortified citadel, and a large granary, advising that they had centers of political authority and sites for tax collection and redistribution. The two cities showed a large investment of human labor and other resources. Both had marketplaces, temples, public buildings, large residential districts, and broad streets that were laid out like a grid. Mohenjo-daro also had a largo pool with private dressing rooms for religious or ritual purposes. The two cities also established weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes that can be found throughout Harappan society. If the two cities did not dominate the Indus valley politically or militarily, they dominated in population. Mohenjo-daro's population was about 35,000 to 40,000, while Harappa's population was a tad bit smaller. Of the other 1,500 settlements discovered, none of them compare to the size of either of them. The Indus River eased trade, travel, and communications. Harappans also engaged in domestic and foreign trade. During 2300 to 1750 B.C.E. they traded with Mesopotamians.
Harappan Society and Culture
Harappan society generated extensive wealth. Mohenjo-daro had its high point from about 2500 to 2000 B.C.E. The city was an economic center with a population of about forty thousand. The wealth of the society encouraged the creation of social distinctions. Their rulers wielded authority from the citadels at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. The rich and poor lived in very different style houses. Larger houses had their own wells and ovens, while smaller houses were just one room. Almost all houses though, had private bathrooms with showers and toilets that drained into city sewage systems. These water and sewage systems were some of the most complex of the ancient world. Because people today have not deciphered Harappan writing, their beliefs and values are very difficult to interpret. Religion had a strong belief of fertility. The people admired many gods and goddesses who were associated the creation and procreation. A while after 1900 B.C.E., Harappan society started declining. One cause was ecological degradation. The people had cleared the Indus Valley to cultivate land. The deforestation led to erosion and reduced rainfall. Over a considerable amount of time, possibly even more than a millenium, the Indus valley turned into a desert. Today only through artificial irrigation is agriculture even possible. It is also possible that natural disasters such as flooding and earthquakes could have crippled Harappan society. Harappan traditions survived through the decline because people from other societies adopted Harappan traditions, such as growing wheat, barley, and cotton.
The Indo-European Migrations and Early Aryan India
During the second millennium B.C.E, bands of foreigners came into India and settle in the Indus Valley and farther. Most prominent were the peoples speaking Indo-European languages called Aryans ("noble people"). By 1500 B.C.E they had begun tho go through the passes of the Hindu Kush mountains and create small herding and agricultural communities across northern India. Their migrations took place over several centuries but did not initiate an invasion nor an expansion of a empire. They were preceded in the settlement of North and other parts of India by the people called Dravidians. As with Mesopotamia and Egypt, water is a crucial resource for agricultural based societies and thus struggles occured semi-frequently between the Aryans and the Dravidians. Time however would lead the two people to intermarry and much of the disputes between the groups dissolved alongside the merging.
The Aryans and India
The Aryans executed limited amount of agriculture. The relied heavily on a pastoral economy. The raised sheep and goats, but prized their horses and cattle. Horses were very valuable because of their expense and rarity. Horses did not breed well in India, so people often shipped them in to replenish their supplies of horseflesh. They also harnessed horses to carts or wagons to help with transportation. They also had them attached to chariots to make deadly war machines. Although, horses were very valuable, cattle were the symbol of wealth. The Aryans did not used writing, but still composed many poems and songs. They preserved collections of religious and literary works by memorizing them and telling them orally from one generation to another in their sacred language, Sanskrit. The earliest of these works are the Vedas. The Vedas represent a priestly view on affairs and reflect a wild society. The Aryans also fought ferociously among themselves. They did not have a common government, but had hundreds of chiefdoms organized. Many kings often raided their neighbors for wealth. After 1000 B.C.E. they began to make iron tools which allowed them to produce more food and support larger populations. By about 750 B.C.E., populations had increased enough, to start small cities. by 500 B.C.E. Aryan groups had moved as far south as the northern Deccan.
Origins of the Caste System
The Aryans constructed a well-defined social order. The social structure relied on hereditary distinctions and roles in society. After about 1000 B.C.E. the Aryans had four main distinctions: priests; warriors and aristocrats; cultivators, artisans, and merchants; and landless peasants and serfs. A fifth caste later emerged to describe those who must do the dirty work that upper castes would not do. The foulness of this groups living environment led to the belief that even a mere touch could defile those of higher status, hench the name "untouchables". Castes and subcastes influenced the lives of individuals throughout history. The subcastes became known as jati. Starting around the sixth century B.C.E the jati was based mainly off of occupation, those in the same field of work made up one jati and one group of people with similiar wants/needs. By the nineteenth century in the systems most defined form the were several thousand jati. The system never functioned in an inflexible manner, but allowed social change to occur hand in hand with new technology and job opportunities. The system also enabled foreign peoples to find a place in Indian society. By the end of the Vedic age, caste distinctions had become institutions in Aryan India. People often times felt stronger ties to their jati than to the city in which they lived. Because of this and the ever present ability for ones jati to advance in the social ranks, the caste system helped to dissapate tensions that could have proven destructive to the society.
The Development of Patriarchal Society
The Aryans also made a social order on the basis of gender. Men dominated the society. All priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs were men, and descent was always through the male line. Women had no public authority, they only were able to influence affairs within their own home. Women were to remain subject to the guidance of males in their lives, first father, then husband, lastly son. Roughly the first century B.C.E the Lawbook of Manu (founder of indian race and people) was written describing the proper rules on the subject of women. Such as sex and relationships and how one should treat them. Women rarely learned the Vedas, and formal education was exclusively a male activity. Only males could inherit property, unless a family had no male heirs. Also, only men could administer over family rituals that honored departed ancestors.
Religion in the Vedic Age
The Aryans entered India with traditions and beliefs that met the needs of an often violent society. Aryans encountered new religious ideas that were intriguing and persuasive. The fusion of Aryan and Dravidian beliefs and values became the foundation of Hinduism.
Aryan Religion
Religious values reflected the larger society. The Aryans worshipped many gods. The chief deity was Indra, a war god. They also admired the gods of the sun, sky, moon, fire, health, disease, dawn, and the underworld. Although, they had respect for the gods, their religion did not neglect ethics. Though they did perform ritual sacrifices to win the favor of the gods. These sacrifices became more complex by the time Aryans entered India. They included the slaughter of dozens, or even hundreds of animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and horses from the Aryans' herds, while the priests spoke the sacred chants and the worshipers participated in soma. Soma is a hallucinogenic concoction that produced sensations of power and divine inspiration. Later in the Vedic Age, Aryans became disenchanted with the rituals.
The Blending of Aryan and Dravidian Values
Traces of traditions appear in the Vedas, but it gained its full development in the body of works known as the Upanishads. The Upanishads taught that appearances are deceiving, that individual humans are not separate. The Upanishads developed several specific doctrines that helped to explain thoughts. One said that upon death, individual souls go temporarily to the World of the Fathers and then return to earth. Another accounted for the specific incarnations that souls experienced. They believed that those who accumulated a heavy burden of karma, would suffer in a future incarnation. The Upanishads influenced Indian thought about the nature of the world.
Interaction Between Humans and the Environment
Many people came to the two main cities- Harappa and Mohanjo-daro because of its wealth. The people also spread throughout northern India and farther. To protect against diseases the people often prayed to the gods to give them good health. They used iron weapons to create chariots and weapons for war. The peoples that settled in the Indus River valley used the Indus river for irrigation, travel, trade, and communications.
Development and Interaction of Culture
The Aryan people worshipped many gods. They often gave ritual sacrifices in order to gain good well-being. They also believed in reincarnation and the force of karma. They believed that if you did good in your present life, you would be reincarnated into something good. They also had specialized labor due to the surplus of food. The used copper tablets and clay seals to write ideas. They used about 400 symbols to represent sounds and words.
State-building, Expansion, and Conflict
The Harappan Society had no evidence of a political system, however each city, did have a fortified citadel and a large granary. They also had many public buildings. Their region was divided into hundreds of chiefdoms, but the chiefdoms often fought to gain more land and power. They did have some regional organization though. Such as sites for tax collection and roads that were laid out in a grid pattern.
Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems
Dravidian settlers grew wheat, barley, and cotton. They also raised sheep, goats, and cattle. The treasured horses and would import horses for afar to replenish their supplies of horseflesh. They exchanged indian copper, wool, leather, and olive oil with other people to gain more valuable possessions.
Development and Transformation of Social Structures
In south Asia, males were dominent throughout society. All of the priests, warriros, and tribal chiefs were men and women had no public authority. Only males could inherit property, unless there were no male heirs, and males were the only ones who could preside over family rituals that honored departed ancestors. South Asia is also where the caste system originated which was created by the Aryans. The four main distinctions were: priests; warriors and aristocrats; cultivator, artisans, and merchants; and landless peasants and serfs.
Beginnings of agriculture in south Asia..............................8000-7000 B.C.E.
High point of Harappan society.........................................2500-2000 B.C.E.
Beginning of Harappan decline.........................................1900 B.C.E
Beginning of Aryan migration to India................................1500 B.C.E.
Vedic Age......................................................................1500-500 B.C.E.
Composition of the Rig Veda............................................1400-900 B.C.E.
Aryan migrations into the Ganges River valley....................1000 B.C.E.
Emergence of varna distinctions........................................1000 B.C.E.
Formation of regional kingdoms in northern India.................1000-500 B.C.E.
Composition of the principal Upanishads.............................800-400 B.C.E.
Establishment of the first Aryan cities in the Ganges valley..750 B.C.E.
Aryan migrations to the Deccan Plateau.............................500 B.C.E.
South Asia (87-105)
Early Societies in South Asia
India was a site of paleolithic communities at least two hundred thousand years ago. By 7000 B.C.E. agriculture had become prominent in the Indus River Valley. After that, agriculture spread rapidly. Around 3000 B.C.E. Dravidian peoples had established neolithic communities throughout much of India. The settlers grew wheat, barley, and cotton. Early cities in India stood at the center of a political, social, and cultural order on the foundation of an agricultural economy.Harappan Society
The Harappan Society was named after Harappa, one of its two chief cities. Both cities, the second being Mohenjo-daro, developed in the Indus River valley, so that the waters could be used for irrigation systems. The Harappan society however spanned more land than either the Mesopotamian or Egypt empires. Archaeologists have found it impossible to follow the development of Harappan society because many of the physical remains lay under the deposited silt from the Indus and a recently risen water table. They also face the problem of no deciphered written records. Because of this, Harappan life is unknown until people can unveil the pictographic script. The understanding of Harappan society depends on the study of material that archaeologists have uncovered since the 1920s.
Foundations of Harappan Society
The Indus River gets its water from rain and melting snow in the mountains of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. As the waters flow down, they pick up huge quantities of silt and carry it across long distances. It then deposits the rich soil as it weaves through the lowlands and slows its force. Today, many dams tame the Indus River, but for a long time the waters spread annually over a large floodplain caus
Harappan Society and Culture
Harappan society generated extensive wealth. Mohenjo-daro had its high point from about 2500 to 2000 B.C.E. The city was an economic center with a population of about forty thousand. The wealth of the society encouraged the creation of social distinctions. Their rulers wielded authority from the citadels at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. The rich and poor lived in very different style houses. Larger houses had their own wells and ovens, while smaller houses were just one room. Almost all houses though, had private bathrooms with showers and toilets that drained into city sewage systems. These water and sewage systems were some of the most complex of the ancient world. Because people today have not deciphered Harappan writing, their beliefs and values are very difficult to interpret. Religion had a strong belief of fertility. The people admired many gods and goddesses who were associated the creation and procreation. A while after 1900 B.C.E., Harappan society started declining. One cause was ecological degradation. The people had cleared the Indus Valley to cultivate land. The deforestation led to erosion and reduced rainfall. Over a considerable amount of time, possibly even more than a millenium, the Indus valley turned into a desert. Today only through artificial irrigation is agriculture even possible. It is also possible that natural disasters such as flooding and earthquakes could have crippled Harappan society. Harappan traditions survived through the decline because people from other societies adopted Harappan traditions, such as growing wheat, barley, and cotton.
The Indo-European Migrations and Early Aryan India
During the second millennium B.C.E, bands of foreigners came into India and settle in the Indus Valley and farther. Most prominent were the peoples speaking Indo-European languages called Aryans ("noble people"). By 1500 B.C.E they had begun tho go through the passes of the Hindu Kush mountains and create small herding and agricultural communities across northern India. Their migrations took place over several centuries but did not initiate an invasion nor an expansion of a empire. They were preceded in the settlement of North and other parts of India by the people called Dravidians. As with Mesopotamia and Egypt, water is a crucial resource for agricultural based societies and thus struggles occured semi-frequently between the Aryans and the Dravidians. Time however would lead the two people to intermarry and much of the disputes between the groups dissolved alongside the merging.
The Aryans and India
The Aryans executed limited amount of agriculture. The relied heavily on a pastoral economy. The raised sheep and goats, but prized their horses and cattle. Horses were very valuable because of their expense and rarity. Horses did not breed well in India, so people often shipped them in to replenish their supplies of horseflesh. They also harnessed horses to carts or wagons to help with transportation. They also had them attached to chariots to make deadly war machines. Although, horses were very valuable, cattle were the symbol of wealth. The Aryans did not used writing, but still composed many poems and songs. They preserved collections of religious and literary works by memorizing them and telling them orally from one generation to another in their sacred language, Sanskrit. The earliest of these works are the Vedas. The Vedas represent a priestly view on affairs and reflect a wild society. The Aryans also fought ferociously among themselves. They did not have a common government, but had hundreds of chiefdoms organized. Many kings often raided their neighbors for wealth. After 1000 B.C.E. they began to make iron tools which allowed them to produce more food and support larger populations. By about 750 B.C.E., populations had increased enough, to start small cities. by 500 B.C.E. Aryan groups had moved as far south as the northern Deccan.
Origins of the Caste System
The Aryans constructed a well-defined social order. The social structure relied on hereditary distinctions and roles in society. After about 1000 B.C.E. the Aryans had four main distinctions: priests; warriors and aristocrats; cultivators, artisans, and merchants; and landless peasants and serfs. A fifth caste later emerged to describe those who must do the dirty work that upper castes would not do. The foulness of this groups living environment led to the belief that even a mere touch could defile those of higher status, hench the name "untouchables". Castes and subcastes influenced the lives of individuals throughout history. The subcastes became known as jati. Starting around the sixth century B.C.E the jati was based mainly off of occupation, those in the same field of work made up one jati and one group of people with similiar wants/needs. By the nineteenth century in the systems most defined form the were several thousand jati. The system never functioned in an inflexible manner, but allowed social change to occur hand in hand with new technology and job opportunities. The system also enabled foreign peoples to find a place in Indian society. By the end of the Vedic age, caste distinctions had become institutions in Aryan India. People often times felt stronger ties to their jati than to the city in which they lived. Because of this and the ever present ability for ones jati to advance in the social ranks, the caste system helped to dissapate tensions that could have proven destructive to the society.
The Development of Patriarchal Society
The Aryans also made a social order on the basis of gender. Men dominated the society. All priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs were men, and descent was always through the male line. Women had no public authority, they only were able to influence affairs within their own home. Women were to remain subject to the guidance of males in their lives, first father, then husband, lastly son. Roughly the first century B.C.E the Lawbook of Manu (founder of indian race and people) was written describing the proper rules on the subject of women. Such as sex and relationships and how one should treat them. Women rarely learned the Vedas, and formal education was exclusively a male activity. Only males could inherit property, unless a family had no male heirs. Also, only men could administer over family rituals that honored departed ancestors.
Religion in the Vedic Age
The Aryans entered India with traditions and beliefs that met the needs of an often violent society. Aryans encountered new religious ideas that were intriguing and persuasive. The fusion of Aryan and Dravidian beliefs and values became the foundation of Hinduism.
Aryan Religion
Religious values reflected the larger society. The Aryans worshipped many gods. The chief deity was Indra, a war god. They also admired the gods of the sun, sky, moon, fire, health, disease, dawn, and the underworld. Although, they had respect for the gods, their religion did not neglect ethics. Though they did perform ritual sacrifices to win the favor of the gods. These sacrifices became more complex by the time Aryans entered India. They included the slaughter of dozens, or even hundreds of animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and horses from the Aryans' herds, while the priests spoke the sacred chants and the worshipers participated in soma. Soma is a hallucinogenic concoction that produced sensations of power and divine inspiration. Later in the Vedic Age, Aryans became disenchanted with the rituals.
The Blending of Aryan and Dravidian Values
Traces of traditions appear in the Vedas, but it gained its full development in the body of works known as the Upanishads. The Upanishads taught that appearances are deceiving, that individual humans are not separate. The Upanishads developed several specific doctrines that helped to explain thoughts. One said that upon death, individual souls go temporarily to the World of the Fathers and then return to earth. Another accounted for the specific incarnations that souls experienced. They believed that those who accumulated a heavy burden of karma, would suffer in a future incarnation. The Upanishads influenced Indian thought about the nature of the world.
Interaction Between Humans and the Environment
Many people came to the two main cities- Harappa and Mohanjo-daro because of its wealth. The people also spread throughout northern India and farther. To protect against diseases the people often prayed to the gods to give them good health. They used iron weapons to create chariots and weapons for war. The peoples that settled in the Indus River valley used the Indus river for irrigation, travel, trade, and communications.Development and Interaction of Culture
The Aryan people worshipped many gods. They often gave ritual sacrifices in order to gain good well-being. They also believed in reincarnation and the force of karma. They believed that if you did good in your present life, you would be reincarnated into something good. They also had specialized labor due to the surplus of food. The used copper tablets and clay seals to write ideas. They used about 400 symbols to represent sounds and words.State-building, Expansion, and Conflict
The Harappan Society had no evidence of a political system, however each city, did have a fortified citadel and a large granary. They also had many public buildings. Their region was divided into hundreds of chiefdoms, but the chiefdoms often fought to gain more land and power. They did have some regional organization though. Such as sites for tax collection and roads that were laid out in a grid pattern.Creation, Expansion, and Interaction of Economic Systems
Dravidian settlers grew wheat, barley, and cotton. They also raised sheep, goats, and cattle. The treasured horses and would import horses for afar to replenish their supplies of horseflesh. They exchanged indian copper, wool, leather, and olive oil with other people to gain more valuable possessions.Development and Transformation of Social Structures
In south Asia, males were dominent throughout society. All of the priests, warriros, and tribal chiefs were men and women had no public authority. Only males could inherit property, unless there were no male heirs, and males were the only ones who could preside over family rituals that honored departed ancestors. South Asia is also where the caste system originated which was created by the Aryans. The four main distinctions were: priests; warriors and aristocrats; cultivator, artisans, and merchants; and landless peasants and serfs.
Beginnings of agriculture in south Asia..............................8000-7000 B.C.E.
High point of Harappan society.........................................2500-2000 B.C.E.
Beginning of Harappan decline.........................................1900 B.C.E
Beginning of Aryan migration to India................................1500 B.C.E.
Vedic Age......................................................................1500-500 B.C.E.
Composition of the Rig Veda............................................1400-900 B.C.E.
Aryan migrations into the Ganges River valley....................1000 B.C.E.
Emergence of varna distinctions........................................1000 B.C.E.
Formation of regional kingdoms in northern India.................1000-500 B.C.E.
Composition of the principal Upanishads.............................800-400 B.C.E.
Establishment of the first Aryan cities in the Ganges valley..750 B.C.E.
Aryan migrations to the Deccan Plateau.............................500 B.C.E.
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T.D.
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K.L.
H.M.
E.P.